Psych 3041 Draft

Introduction

The definition of emotion varies across studies; but more often, it is defined as a mental state or feeling related to our interpretation of our experiences (Lilienfeld, Lynn, Namy & Woolf, 2011). A recent study by Fazio (2000) proposed that emotions incorporate attitudes, which is associated in decision-making and improve its efficacy. The words mood and emotion are often used interchangeably; however, are two different concepts. Mood typically last longer, less specific and less intense than emotions (Ekkekakis, 2013). Emotions can result in physiological and psychological changes that influence our thoughts and behaviours (Najmi, Wegner & Nock, 2007). In our daily lives, we experience many emotions, either pleasant, unpleasant, or both. Conventional wisdom tells us that much of the emotions, particularly negative ones, such as angry, sad and guilty, are unhealthy, even self-destructive. It is therefore crucial for us to handle those emotions wisely and differently in accordance to the circumstances.

Consequently, many empirical studies and research have been carried out extensively in determining the best affect measures to assess our feelings and emotions (Watson & Tellegen, 1985; Watson, Clark & Carey, 1988). Since the past few decades, two broad factors - Positive Affect (PA) and Negative Affect (NA) have emerged reliably and consistently as the dominant dimensions of emotional experience (Mayer & Gaschke, 1988; Meyer & Shack, 1989; Watson, Clark & Carey, 1988). To measure these factors, Watson, Clark and Tellegen (1988) developed the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS), which has shown to be highly internally consistent, largely uncorrelated and stable over at least a two-month period. This measure comprises two 10-item scales for each PA (interested, excited, alert, inspired, strong, determined, attentive, active, enthusiastic and proud) and NA (irritable, ashamed, distressed, upset, nervous, guilty, scared, hostile, jittery and afraid).

Nevertheless, a hierarchical conception of affect was also proposed by Watson and Tellegen (1985). That is, besides the higher order of scales - PA and NA, some specific emotions were also identified in the same data (Watson & Clark, 1992). To assess these specific affects, an expanded version for the PANAS scale - PANAS-X, which consists of 60 items, was initiated by Watson and Clark (1994). The PANAS-X measures emotions at two different levels. In addition to the two general dimension scales (PA and NA), the scale also measures 11 specific affects (4 basic negative emotion scales, 3 basic positive emotion scales and 4 other affective states) which are fear, hostility, guilt, sadness, joviality, self-assurance, attentiveness, shyness, fatigue, serenity and surprise. Apart from that, PANAS were also modified for children use (PANAS-C; Laurent et al., 1999) as well as shortened for international use where the participants do not have English as mother tongue (I-PANAS-SF; Thompson, 2007).

Aim:

Hypothesis:

Method

Participants

The sample consists of a convenience sample of 315 third-year undergraduate psychology students (Mage = 24.00, SDage = 7.09, 62 males, 253 females) enrolled in “Psychological testing, theories of ability and ethics” from Monash University campuses. Participants took part in this study voluntarily.

Materials

Two hundred questions online questionnaires were used. The questionnaires consisted of 100 items adopted from Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) and the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule – Expanded Form (PANAS –X). There were two sections in the questionnaires. In the first section, participants were asked to rate each of the 100 emotions in association with sleep deprivation. In the second section, participants were required to rate if the

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