Learning Theory

LEARNING THEORY

1. Learning (Defined): The change in one’s behavior in given situations due to repeated experiences although single trial learning can occur

1. Ex: If you tell me after 1st exam that you really know this stuff and you failed the exam, will be told that no learning has taken place, b/c learning measured by tests ➔ “I couldn’t have failed your course, I’m an A student” ➔ you might’ve been an A student in path, or neuro, but not in this class ➔ learning due to repeated experiences, which is why you review and why you learn better if you hear something more times
2. Single trial learning tends to be linked to physically or emotionally uncomfortable/charged situations

1. Classical Conditioning: Learning that results from repeated pairing of a neurtral or conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus which is one that evokes a response; passive process on the part of the subject

1. ACQUISITION: Salivating response from bell;
2. EXTINCTION: when ringing the bell no longer illicit salivation

1. If bell (CS) is not followed by food (US) for several trials, CR (Salivation) will cease or be “extinguished”.

1. SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY: wait some time and then ring bell, may salivate
2. ADDITIONAL EXTINCTION: further ringing of the bell is going to reduce response

1. Conditioning = “Learning” → Classical Conditioning = if learning appears to be passive on the part of the subject; Active learning usually pertains to Operant Conditioning; Neutral or unconditioned stimulus is something that has yet to be learned & vice versa

1. Stimulus = cue from an internal or external event
2. Response = behavior which is evoked by a stimulus

1. PAVLOV’S DOG EXPERIMENT:

1. Pavlov gives meat to dog, causes dog to salivate ➔ Didn’t have to teach dog to salivate, so unconditioned ➔ eventually technicians noticed that dogs would salivate as soon as the technicians came into view to give the meat ➔ when the technicians went into the kitchen to get pots and pans to prepare the meat, dogs would salivate when they hear the pots and pans clanking ➔ so Pavlov wanted to find out how to use the clanking noise to induce salivation ➔ can’t control pots and pans clanking very well, so used a bell ➔ test: give dogs meat and ring a bell ➔ eventually dogs can salivate just by hearing bell ring, even if there’s no meat
2. MEAT = Unconditioned Stimulus → Salivation = Unconditioned Response (Physiological Response; not taught)
3. RING BELL = Conditioned Stimulus → Salivation = Conditioned Response
4. Example: WHITE COAT SYNDROME: Classical conditioning → we go into the doctor’s office and automatically have an increase in blood pressure

1. Go to the mall/pharmacy and have BP measured, can read 120/80 ➔ when doctor takes BP, reads 160/90 ➔ assuming that all the BP cuffs in malls/pharmacies are calibrated and accurate, why is there the difference?
2. Conditioned response = increased BP, but in order to get a response need a stimulus (doctor’s office, conditioned stimulus) ➔ unconditioned stimulus = anxiety, unconditioned response = increased BP ➔ that’s why little kids don’t want to go to doctor, b/c they will stick a needle in you

1. GUY WHO BEAT CANCER BUT AFRAID OF HOSPITALS

1. Drives by hospital, feels queasy, but doesn’t get any worse so he’s like “I’ll be ok” but every time he goes by the hospital he gets the same queasy feeling
2. Talks to physician about it ➔ how does physician explains that chemotherapy will lead to nausea/vomiting
3. Natural response, so unconditioned stimulus and unconditioned response from the medication➔ but eventually, he will pair the chemo w/ the hospital itself so that the mere sight of hospital will lead to nausea and vomiting
4. Acquisition phase where we start off w/ unconditioned stimulus and response, and a conditioned stimulus and response is being paired

1. STIMULUS GENERALIZATION: Pavlov thought if he hits a bell w/a hammer, it will emit a certain frequency (~440 Hz) ➔ found out that bells that have a frequency that sounded like the original bell, will get dogs to salivate ➔ further away from frequency, less salivation
2. DISCRIMINATION: ability to differentiate between two similar stimuli

1. Learning is a balance between generalization and discrimination

1. WATSON’S LIL’ ALBERT EXPERIMENT: Stimulus Generalization

1. Lil’ Albert ➔ brought little rabbits for Albert to play with ➔ Albert had no fear of the rabbits ➔ 
2. One day when Albert played w/ rabbits, dude sneaks up from behind & smashes cymbals to induce startle reflex; did this a few times
3. Rabbits eventually induced a startle reflex in Lil’ Albert.  Taught him to be afraid of rabbits
4. Lil’ Albert has difficulty discriminating, so will generalize the stimulus ➔ bunny rabbits are soft and fuzzy, so if give him a soft fuzzy slipper will induce startle response
5. Individuals who develop phobias such as dental anxiety and white coat syndrome develop in the same fashion.

1. OPERANT OR INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING

1. Process that occurs wherein a stimulus evokes a response that brings into view a rewarding stimulus, and thereafter is more likely to evoke that response.

1. The response may also prevent or remove a noxious or punishing stimulus
2. LAW OF EFFECT: Selects from a set of random responses only those that are followed by positive consequences

1. SKINNER & BOX WITH CHICKEN

1. Box w/ cup on one end and lever ➔ on end of one box he put a chicken ➔ if put a chicken down on the ground, will start looking for food by pecking around
2. At some point purely by accident, chicken will peck against the lever, and a pellet will drop in the cup ➔ chicken will eat it and peck around some more and accidentally peck the lever again and will get another pellet
3. Does this enough times and chicken get light bulb “Every time I peck the lever, I get food, so what if I peck the lever on purpose?”
4. From then on chicken doesn’t peck anywhere but the lever ➔ law of effect: of all things chicken can do, will do the ones that result in reward/positive consequences

1. Positive Reinforcement: A reward makes a behavior happen
2. Negative reinforcement: make behavior happen b/c it’s a reinforcement ➔ made reward removal of punishment

1. Reinforcement schedule (RATIO: Number of times something is performed; INTERVAL: Based on time)

1. continuous: best way to learn something in a hurry ➔ e.g., every time pigeon pecked a lever will get a pellet
2. fixed: will keep behavior going for a long time ➔ e.g., every 5 times a pigeon pecked a lever will get a pellet; Usually increases production (Fixed rate of $ for a given time): Getting more productivity from someone by paying them by unit produced not by the hour
3. variable: no set time period for reward ➔ now never know when you’ll be paid off ➔ e.g., if run casino and someone comes in to slot machines, will run variable schedule b/c never know when payoff is coming ➔ so will stay at slot all day even w/ no reward b/c know that the reward was coming

1. Punishment: every time chicken steps on a wire, gets shocked ➔ if done enough times chicken won’t go there anymore ➔ so if punished, will stop behavior, where reward continues behavior
2. 1’ and 2’ reinforcers:

1. Igor’s mom would pat him on the head everytime he made the bed ➔ pat on the head = 1’ reinforcer
2. But mom would put star on a chart as well as pat on the head everytime igor made the bed ➔ eventually star takes on a meaning all of its own
3. Even though it’s just a piece of paper, igor thinks that star is very important ➔ star = 2’ reinforcer ➔ star conditioned w/ pat on the head

1. 1’ reinforcer has something of value to individual (e.g., money, food)
2. 2’ reinforcer have no value to individual

1. SHAPING:

1. Teach kid language using operant conditioning ➔ think about little kid (e.g., infant) laying on crib ➔ start out w/ cooing and babbling ➔ by accident kid makes a noise that remotely sounds like “ma”
2. Mom comes in from 7 rooms across and drags everyone in to hear the baby say “ma” ➔ when baby stumbles upon this again, everyone is dragged into the room again
3. Kid eventually finds out that something magical about word “ma” b/c everyone makes a big deal out of it ➔ find out mother = fickle ➔ eventually wants kid to say “mother” b/c “ma” gets old
4. Taking complicated task and break it down into simple elements ➔ reward w/ completion of each element ➔ once complete an element no more reward until kid completes another element
5. Start w/ something that’s a natural behavior for a subject and then move on to the next complex behavior until kid can speak in sentences, put sentences in paragraphs, then put paragraphs in dissertations

1. BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION: Manipulate a situation to cause a change in behavior
2. conditioning on small behaviors and modify/reinforce them
3. THEORY OF MIND: I know I’m feeling a certain way and act accordingly; therefore you must act the same way, and feel the same way (Crying, scowling, etc.)

1. Learning Theory:

1. Implications for Psychopathology:

1. Can you teach someone a disease via operant conditioning? Dad was a good doctor and had a wife and daughter ➔ would be at the hospital or office all the time, so would never get a chance to see daughter (e.g., asleep by the time he gets home, still asleep when he goes to work) ➔ daughter wants attention from dad ➔ one day she woke up earlier than usual while dad got ready for work later than usual ➔ daughter ran to go say bye to dad, trips on nightgown and gets collin’s fracture ➔ dad stops everything he’s doing, splints her wrist, carries her into the car, takes her to the hospital to get x-rays, and then takes her home ➔ after that, people noticed that daughter becomes more accident prone ➔ learned that she gets attention from dad when she gets hurt, so would rather get hurt and get attention vs. get no attention

1. Implications for Pathophysiology:
2. Implications for Treatment:

1. Psychotherapy: Development of Hypertension as a mode of Learning → Air traffic controller → Teach relaxation techniques to counter the Essential Hypertension

1. AVERSION THERAPY: Give alcoholics syrup of ipecac, then take them to the bar ➔ will vomit after 20 min ➔ alcoholics will drink as much as they can drink at the bar, but after 20 min get nauseous and then vomit ➔ give them more syrup of ipecac and send them back to the bar ➔ do this for 7 days until they are conditioned to associate syrup of ipecac w/ alcohol ➔ now alcoholism extinction on, but have to worry about spontaneous recovery (if continue to drink w/o ipecac, will eventually lose conditioning) ➔ so call them back to another treatment program before the spontaneous recovery happens

1. Psychophysiological Disorders: